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In the previous article, we tackled the reign of Constantine his building Constantinople to be the capital of the East. We pointed to the Edict of Milan developed in 313 which stated that Christians should be allowed to follow the faith without oppression, having suffered from persecution for several years. We also spoke of the debut of monasticism in Egypt and its spreading in the whole world, as well as the appearance of Coptic literature. Egypt played a crucial role in preserving faith in the council of Nyssa.
Constantine proclaimed his cousin and three sons Caesars. Each of them ruled part of the Empire during his lifetime. After his death, the country’s reign was passed to his three sons.
Constantine II (337-340 A.D.)
He is the eldest of Constantine the Great’s sons. He was Caesar of the West during his father’s lifetime. After his father’s death, he ruled the kingdom together with his brothers Constantius II and Constans. The three brothers agreed to get rid of the entirety of their father’s family lest they claim taking part in the rule. Only two remained, namely, Gallus and his brother Julian. Constantine II ruled Gaul (northern Italy, France, and Belgium), Britain, Hispania (Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar, and part of southern France). One the other hand, Constans ruled Italy, Africa, Illycrium (northern Albany to Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina). Constantine II was prince regent to his youngest brother Constans.
Shortly afterwards, however, Constantine II and Constans conflicted: for Constantine II complained that his portion was too small and demanded that his brother forsake the African provinces. Constans agreed. Yet, they did not come to terms and embarked on a fierce fight that ended in the death of Constantine II.
Constans (340-350 A.D.)
Constans was Constantine’s youngest son. He took over the state’s affairs after his brother’s defeat and death. During the last years of his tenure, general Magnentius rebelled against him, proclaiming himself Emperor of France. He had many supporters who endorsed him, especially the troops on the Rhine, then on the western provinces of the Empire. Historians had no common opinion. Some asserted that when Constans got to know of Magnentius’ news, he marched to fight him. Others maintain that when Constans tried to confront that rebellion, nobody supported him. So, he ran for his life. Yet, Magnentius’ followers killed him after offering sacrifices in the temple. Then Manicus ruled the country.
Constantius II (337-361 A.D.)
He is the second son of Constantine the Great. He co-ruled the empire with his brothers after their father’s death. He ruled the Roman provinces in Asia and Egypt until 350, then became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire after the assassination of his brothers. No sooner had Constantius II heard of what had become of his brother, than he mobilized armies to fight Magnentius and avenge his brother and country. He overcame him in two battles after which Magnentius committed suicide. Thus, Constantius II ruled Rome alone.
In 351, due to the extension of the Empire in eastwards and westwards and difficulty to run, Constantius proclaimed his cousin Gallus Caesar, handing him the Eastern provinces, while he ruled the western provinces in addition to the whole empire. Yet, Gallus was immoral and a bad administrator, which made Constantius execute him after three years only.
At that time, the Empire was severely attacked form east and west, which made Constantius in dire need of aides. So, he involved Gallus’ youngest brother Julian in reign (being the last member of Constantine the Great’s family), proclaiming him Caesar. Julian was a Christian who was engaged in philosophy and literature. Constantius appointed him army commander and sent him with the troops to protect the western provinces. Julian did confront the attacks and emerge victoriously, which made Constantius envy and try to weaken him.
This did happen when the eastern provinces of the Empire was attacked by the Persian king Shapur II. So, Constantius asked Julian to dispatch more than half the army to join the troops of the East. But the soldiers disobeyed the Emperor, being unwilling to forsake their commander. They proclaimed him Augustus in Paris. These incidents could have led to a civil war, had it not been for Constantius’ death. Thus, Julian became Caesar of Rome.
Julian (361-363 A.D.)
He was also known as Julian the Apostate. He ruled the Empire alone after Constantius’ death. He entered Constantinople in 361.
At the beginning of his tenure, his subjects were happy as he was just and virtuous. When he became Emperor, he expelled corrupt people from his court, attracting sages and philosophers. He was famous for being a renowned writer and philosopher. So, virtuous people were attracted to him.
Before his tenure, Julian was Christian. But he forsook Christianity after becoming Emperor, which led to the rise of paganism once more. So much so that a writer mentioned that his court became full of sorcerers and soothsayers. Even more, he made himself both Emperor and priest. So, he became a chief of pagans, which he took pride in. He became quite hostile to Christians. He dedicated all his effort to spreading paganism, but failed. During his tenure, the Persians raided the eastern provinces several times. So, he mobilized a great army to fight them.
As he was marching for this purpose, he stopped at Antioch where he spent some time. There, he saw a ruined pagan temple and saw how the people despised paganism. So, he became quite angry and persecuted Christians there, ordering his soldiers to hurt, kill, and rob them. Then, he raided Persia. The armies fought, and Julian was defeated. He retreated, which made Shapur II chase him. Julian attacked his enemies bravely and was badly wounded. When the Persian king got to know of this, he attacked Julian once more. A fierce battle broke out where Julian was killed and his army defeated. He had ruled only for two years.
During his tenure, pagans in Alexandria had become strong. Their philosophical teachings returned. Julian used to worship Apis, an Egyptian deity. His love for this deity appeared in a message he had sent to his viceroy in Egypt regarding banishing Pope Athanasius, the twentieth patriarch. He wrote, “I swear to Apis the calf, if this patriarch does not leave the city as soon as possible, I will lay a one-hundred-gold fine on your soldiers in order to punish them.”
It is said that when he was preparing to fight the Persian king, a message from his viceroy in Egypt reached him, saying that Egyptians had discovered Apis the calf which they worshipped. They made sure it was their deity. So, he rejoiced, thinking this was a sign of potential victory.
Jovian (363-364 A.D.)
After Julian’s death, the Persian army besieged the Roman troops, preventing provisions from reaching them. After commanders had discussed the matter, they decided to choose Sacoff, the proconsul of the East, Emperor. But, being too old for the mission, they chose Jovian the head guard. He was kind, smart, and loved by his soldiers.
When he settled down, he tried to save the troops from the Persians’ chasing. Yet, what really saved them was the Persian king’s demanding a treaty. Yet, he laid conditions that conflicted with the laws of the Roman Empire. However, there was no alternative. Jovian annulled all the decreed Julian had issued concerning paganism and persecuting Christians. So, he allowed Christians to pray in their churches, restored whoever was dismissed, and returned confiscated property to its owners.
Likewise, he restored Pope Athanasius to his see. He sent him a message, saying, “From Jovian to Athanasius, the pious man who loves God: Being quite interested in your holy reputation and zeal on our Christian faith, we hereby make you our protégé, O respectable bishop! You are worth this. Now, we call upon you to return and teach the principles of salvation. Come back to your holy church and secure God’s people. We hope you pray for us as you conduct prayers: for we are sure that God will shower us and all Christians with blessings if you put us in your prayers.” While the Emperor was getting ready to travel from Antioch to Constantinople, he died suddenly and without good reason! He had ruled the Empire for one year, and stories never end in Beautiful Egypt.
General Bishop
Head of the Coptic Orthodox Cultural Center
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