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In the previous article, we tackled the tenure of Constantine the Great, Julian the Apostate who persecuted Christians, became a pagan once more and tried to spread paganism, and Jovian who annulled Julian’s decrees and restored Pope Athanasius to his see.
The See of Alexandria was greatly influenced by this epoch: for the Church confronted heresies and heterodoxies, while preserving faith. Pope Athanasius, the twentieth patriarch, was one of her heroes. He underwent lots of tribulations, was falsely charged with many crimes that he might be banished. But God did not allow these conspiracies to succeed.
The Emperors of the East influenced the Church of Alexandria by interfering in her affairs. They deposed and banished Popes, appointing others in their stead by force.
Constantius II and Pope Athanasius
Constantius II, son of Constantine the Great and ruler of the East, took the Arians’ side and persecuted the Orthodox terribly. So much so, that his persecution was fiercer than that of the pagans. Constantius II deposed Pope Athanasius, appointing Gregory of Cappadocia in his stead. Gregory attacked the church on Great Friday in order to kill Pope Athanasius, but monks and priests carried him outside the church to save him.
Soldiers killed the congregation, burnt holy books, ransacked churches, and killed many monks. Atrocities increased to such an extent that even St. Anthony, the father of monasticism, wrote Gregory a message of rebuke which he did not heed.
At that time, Constantius II sent a message to the proconsul of Egypt, ordering him to put guards on Alexandria lest Pope Athanasius enter the city. He threatened to kill him. Yet, Egyptians refused to have any but Pope Athanasius who was very warmly welcomed when he returned to his see after quite a while.
St. Gregory of Nazianzus commented on this, saying, “People came from everywhere to receive their Pope. They showed such deep affection for him that they were about to soar happily. They crowded in like manner the Nile used to flood!”
After the death of Constantine II, eldest son of Constantine the Great and ruler of the West, Constantius II monopolized the throne. He started supporting the Arians once more, banished the Pope, and appointed another called Georgius of Cappadocia.
Georgius was worse than his predecessor: for the period of time he spent in Alexandria was one of more persecution of Egyptians. He banished thirty bishops, having treated them harshly, which killed many of them. Georgius was so unjust that the people hated him. They even left churches, preferring to pray in tombs to praying with him. When he got to know of this, he sent spies after them and killed whoever he found. The atrocities he perpetrated are the best evidence of the Egyptians’ steadfast defense of their faith. The Pope remained in his exile until the death of Constantius II and the reign of Julian.
Julian the Apostate forsook Christianity and embraced paganism. Despite his immense hatred for Christians, he hated Constantius more. So, he ordered that all the decrees directed against Christians be annulled. Thus, the Pope returned to his congregation.
As for Georgius, due to the atrocities he committed against Christians and pagans, pagans rebelled against him. They killed him, burnt his body, and threw his ashes into the sea.
Shortly afterwards, Julian banished Pope Athanasius. Yet, when Jovian took over, he restored Pope Athanasius to his see; but this was short-lived: for Valentinian I and Valens took over.
Valentinian I (364-375 A.D.)
He was born in a city near the current Belgrade, Serbia. He joined the Roman Army under Constantius II and Julian in the Western provinces. However, Constantius II dismissed him from the military service, having accused him of weakening military operations. Yet, Emperor Jovian restored him. But he died in 364. So, he was chosen by civil and military commanders to rule the country. This was in Nyssa, a Greek city on the Western coast of Anatolia. Then, his brother Valens appointed a viceroy on the Eastern provinces in Constantinople, while he ruled the Western ones. He was located in Milan.
At the beginning of his tenure, Gaul was attacked by the Germanic tribes. Also, Procopius ignited rebellions against Valens in the East. Valentinian chose to defend the Western provinces. He overcame them after several battles which could have cost him his life. Moreover, during the greater part of his tenure, he plunged into battles with the Germans, in Britain, the Danube, and the African provinces.
Valentinian I was able to protect the Western provinces from the raids. At that time, he appointed his eight-year-old son Gratian co-emperor. This was in 367. During his tenure, he had several military achievements that enabled him to secure the borders of the Empire. Eventually, he died in 375, owing to a fit of anger.
Valentinian I
Some historians describe Valentinian as quick-tempered, cruel, unjust, bloodthirsty, and negligent of his subjects. He issued decrees to punish whoever was accused of treason, or conspired with enemy, without investigation or evidence. This led to accusing both the innocent and the guilty. Other historians describe him as tolerant, valiant, responsible, and a good administrator. They say he did not persecute either pagans or Arians.
His Stance toward Creeds
He never interfered in religious cases. Neither did he have any clear stance like his brother Valens who was very much biased to the Arians.
Valentinian I annulled Julian’s directive that prohibited Christians from education. Likewise, he renewed the directive of Constantine the Great of refraining from judiciary work on Sundays. He excused Christians from participation in wrestling. Likewise, he issued a decree, preventing pagans from presenting offerings at night. Some say that he issued decrees that prevented heretics and pagans from assembling. Then, he retracted due to his care for pagan priests and preservation of their privileges. He even gave them more privileges than Christians. While Christian priests forbade women from taking any inheritance that they were not entitled to, such decrees did not apply to pagan priests. He was indecisive.
Valens (364-378 A.D.)
Valens joined the army to serve under Julian, then Jovian. As we mentioned beforehand, he participated with his brother in ruling the Eastern provinces. At the beginning, ruling the East seemed easy to him. Yet, troubles started to appear. His father-in-law was cruel and greedy. Rebellions broke against both of them in 365, led by Procopius, a retired commander who was proclaimed emperor and was greatly endorsed. In 366, Valens’ troops met Procopius’ who was betrayed by his commanders. So, he fled, but was arrested and put to death.
Securing the Empire
Having overcome rebellions, Valens started securing his Empire from the raids that threatened it from the North. He did settle down. Yet, occasional problems started appearing in the East, such as the conspiracy of Theodore of Antioch in 371. Valens fought the Persians who occupied Armenia: the Roman and Persian troops met in Iraq, and Valens emerged victorious. War ended in 376 in a peace treaty with the Persians. After the death of his brother Valentinian I in 375, he proclaimed himself Augustus on his nephew Gratian in the West.
Soon afterwards, a Tartar nation appeared. It was called the Huns. They attacked the Ostrogoths who fled to the East, seeking refuge in the Roman provinces, which Valens allowed them to do. However, the Roman proconsuls’ cruelty toward them, especially depriving them from food, led to rebellion directed by Vortigern. They came in huge numbers from the Balkans to Thrace. Despite the fact that they were overcome, they came back in greater numbers in Edrine, Turkey, where a great battle broke out between them and Valens who asked his nephew Gratian for help. Yet, he did not wait for him, engaged in war, and was killed in 378.
As for Valens’ internal policy and its impact on Egypt, we have a lot to tell: for stories never end in Beautiful Egypt.
General Bishop
Head of the Coptic Orthodox Cultural Center
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